The Research Question

Objectives -- After completing this module you will be able to:

  • Analyze how theory, research question and working research hypotheses or propositions are related
  • Analyze and explain how researchers move from constructs in a theory to variables in a study
  • Decide whether a statistical or formal hypothesis is useful or desirable
  • Assess the quality of research questions in the published literature from a realist perspective

Assigned Materials

Topic 1: How are research design decisions and the nature of your research question related?

Bernard, pp. 51-65 (starting with Cause, Effect and Theory)

How Can We Know No need to look at this ahead of time. We will use it in class.

Topic 2: How can you identify a good researchable question?

Learning Guide -- Understanding Research Questions

Start by watching this short video: Thick Vs. Thin Questions. It's actually fun to watch and it makes a key point about "what makes a good research question."

Read pp. 71-88 in Bernard

Then watch Developing a Research Question by Dr. Sam Fiala. Not nearly so much fun as the first video -- but a really good and thoughtful piece that goes from getting a good idea to developing a research question. Fiala's presentation is divided into distinct sections. Write down and bring to class the most important idea you got from each section in his presentaion. This should be brief -- no more than a couple of sentences for each key idea. The first section, for example, is entitled "My Approach." He makes five key points in this section of the presentation. You need to decide which is the most important (interesting, useful, something you never thought about before) of these five ideas for you. Be prepared to briefly explain your logic -- why you think it is the most important.

Topic 3: How can you spot a "good article" -- worth your time -- versus a "bad article" not worth your time?

I want you to learn to read less, not more, and to be selective about what you read. Most students, in my experience, are prone to reading every article that "seems interesting" to them and also seem to feel that you have to read every word in an article to make use of the article in their work. Read the following materials available at the course website home page. Click Documents by Swisher -- Including the SYLLABUS. I want you to read Deciding What to Read and What Makes a Good Contribution to the Literature.

Have a copy of this article available in class -- electronic or hard copy. You do NOT need to read the article before class. You don't even need to look at it before class.

Carman, J.G. & Nesbit, R. (2012) Founding new nonprofit organizations: Syndrome or symptom? Nonprofit & Voluntary Sector Quarterly 42(3), 603-621.

Topic 4: Practicum in deciding what to read which will help you a great deal with Assignment 2.

2. Work with a partner-- anyone you want. The two of you should read THE SAME ONE of the following research reports. Fill out the Abstract Evaluation Form to make your decision. Read the article very quickly. Your only objective for this attempt to radh the article is to decide whether it is truly worth reading in detail. Presumably, based on how you score the abstract in the Abstract Evaluation Form, you think so. Now you have a second opportunity to reject spending your precious time reading the article in detail. Follow the instructions in Step 2 in Deciding What to Read. Focus on the theoretical basis of the research and the strength of the research question, calling on what you have read in Bernard, my comments about what constitutes a good contribution to the body of knowledge, and what Fiala says about a finding a good research question. DO NOT READ the methods section or the results in detail -- skim through them quickly at most. Go to the discussion and conclusions sections of the article. Do spend time reading these sections. You need to decide whether the author "delivered" the contributions to the literature that s/he talked about making in the introduction. If I tell you as an author that my objective for the research was to understand how community support contributes to resiliency among underprivileged children, I should be able to explain the relationships between community support and resiliency in the discussion and I probably sould be able to make some suggestions for practice (how to use what I learned) and for future research (what we still do not know) in the conclusions. There is no need to examine the methods in detail. Spend no more than about 15 or 20 minutes on reading the article. Have a hard or electronic copy of the Flow Chart for ARTICLES YOU READ in class. You must have this to complete the class exercise.

Acharya K.P., Paudel, P.K., Jnawali, S.R., Neupane, P.R. & Kohl, M. (2017) Can forest fragmentation and configuration work as indicators of human-wildlife conflict? Evidence from human death and injury by wildlife attacks in Nepal. Ecological Indicators 80:74-83.

Amit, R. & Jacobson, S. (2017) Stakeholder barriers and benefits associated with improving livestock husbandry to prevent jaguar and puma depredation. Human Dimensions of Wildlife 22(3), 246-266.

Bernstein, J., Graczyk, A., Lawrence, D., Bernstein, E. & Strunin, L. (2011). Determinants of drinking trajectories among minority youth & young adults: The interaction of risk and resilience.Youth & Society 43(4), 1199-1219.

Bess, K.D. (2015) Reframing coalitions as systems interventions: A network study exploring the contribution of a youth violence prevention coalition to broader system capacity. American Journal of Community Science 55(3/4):381-395.

Brooks, J.S. (2010) Economic and social dimensions of environmental behavior: Balancing conservation and development in Bhutan Brooks. Conservation Biology 24(6), 1499-1509.

Cashman, R., Eng, E., Siman, F. & Rhodes, S.D. (2011) Exploring the sexual health priorities and needs of immigrant Latinas in the Southeastern United States: A community-based participatory research approach. AIDS Education & Prevention, 23(3), 236-248.

Christens, B.D., Speer, P.W. & Peterson, N.A. (2011). Social class as a moderator of the relationship between (dis)empowering processes and psychological empowerment. Journal of Community Psychology 39(2), 170-182.

Farrington, D.P., Ttofi, M.M. & Piquero, A.R. (2016) Risk, promotive, and protective factors in youth offending: Results from the Cambridge study in delinquent development. Journal of Criminal Justice 45:63-70.

Forge, N.; Lewinson, T.; Garner, B.M.; Braxton, C.; Greenwald, L.; and Maley, O. (2018) "Humbling experiences": A photovoice project with sexual and gender-expansive youth experiencing homelessness. Journal of Community Psychology 46(6), 806-822.

Hjerm, M. & Nagayoshi, K. (2011). The composition of the minority population as a threat: Can real economic and cultural threats explain xenophobia? International Sociology 26(6), 815-843.

Hornung, S. (2010) Alienation matters: Validity and utility of Etzioni's theory of commitment in explaining prosocial organizational behavior. Social Behavior & Personality 38(8), 1081-1096.

Hulko, W. & Hovanes, J. (2018) Intersectionality in the lives of LGBTQ youth: Identifying as LGBTQ and finding community in small cities and rural towns. Journal of Homosexuality. 65(4), 427-455.

Insetta, E.R., Akers, A.Y., Miller, E., Yonas, M.A., Burke, J.G., Hintz, L. & Chang, J.C. (2015) Intimate partner violence victims as mothers: Their messages and strategies for communicating with children to break the cycle of violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 30(4), 703-724.

Joy, P. & Number, M. (2017) The use of photo elicitation to explore the benefits of queer student acvocacy groups in university. Journal of LGBT Youth 14(1), 31-50.

Karanth, K.K. & Kudalkar, S. (2017) History, location, and species matter: Insights for human-wildlife contlict mitigation from India. Human Dimensions of Wildlife 22(4), 331-346.

Larson, S., De Freitas, D.M. & Hicks, C.C. (2013) Sense of place as a determinant of people's attitudes towards the environment: Implications for natural resources management and planning in the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Journal of Environmental Management 117, 226-234.

Lusher, D. & Robins, G. (2010) A social network analysis of hegemonic and other masculinities. Journal of Men's Studies 18(1), 22-44.

Marlier, M., Van Dyck, D., Cardon, G., DeBourdeaudhuij, I., Babiak, K. & Willem, A. (2015) Interrelation of sport participation, physical activity, social capital and mental health in disadvantaged communities: A SEM-Analysis. PLoS ONE 10(10), 1-18. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0140196.

McGuinness, S.K. (2016) Perceptions of crop raiding: Effects of land tenure and agro-industry on human-wildlife conflict. Animal Conservation 19(6), 578-587.

Morrison, M., Duncan, R. & Parton, K. (2015) Religion does matter for climate change attitudes and behavior. PLoS ONE 10(8), 1-16.

Niles, M., Brown, M. & Dynes, R. (2016) Farmer's intended and actual adoption of climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies. Climatic Change 135(2), 277-295.

Nollen, N.L., Mayo, M.S., Carlson, S.E., Rapoff, M. A., Goggin, K.J. & Ellerbeck, E.F. (2014) Mobile technology for obesity prevention: A randomized pilot study in racial- and ethnic-minority girls. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 46(4), 404-408.

Pearce, M., Willis, E., Mamerow, L., Jorgensen, B. & Martin, J. (2014) The prestige of sustainable living: Implications for water use in Australia. Geographical Journal 180(2), 161-174.

Robinson, B.A. (2018) Conditional families and lesbian, gay, bisexual, Transgender and queer youth homelessness: Gender, sexuality, family instability and rejection. Journal of Marriage and Family 80(2), 383-396.

Schewe, R.L. & Stuart, D. (2017) Why don't they just change? Contract farming, informational influence and barriers to agricultural climate change mitigation. Rural Sociology 82(2), 226-262.

Shye S. (2010) The motivation to volunteer: A systemic quality of life theory. Social Indicators Research 98(2):183-200. doi: 10.1007/s11205-009-9545-3.

Spano, R., Pridemore, W.A. & Bolland, J. (2012) Specifying the role of exposure to violence and violent behavior on initiation of gun carrying: A longitudinal test of three models of youth gun carrying. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 27(1), 158-176.

Stuntz, C.P., Sayles, J.K. & McDermott, E.L. (2011) Same-sex and mixed-sex sport teams: How the social environment relates to sources of social support and perceived competence. Journal of Sport Behavior, 34(1), 98-120.

Teel, T.L. & Manfredo, M.J. (2010) Understanding the diversity of public interests in wildlife conservation. Conservation Biology 24(1), 128-139.

Timperley, H.S. & Parr, J.M. (2009) Chain of influence from policy to practice in the New Zealand literacy strategy. Research Papers in Education 24(2), 135-154.

Urban J.B., Lewin-Bizan S., Lerner R.M. (2009) The role of neighborhood ecological assets and activity involvement in youth developmental outcomes: Differential impacts of asset poor and asset rich neighborhoods. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 30(5):601-614. doi: 10.1016/j.appdev.2009.07.003.

Vantilborgh, T., Bidee, J., Pepermans, R. et al. (2013) Revisiting the relationship between personality and psychological contracts: A moderated mediation model explaining volunteer performance. Social Service Review 87(1), 158-186.

Vella, S., Oades, L., and Crowe, T. (2011) The role of the coach in facilitating positive youth development: Moving from theory to practice. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 23(1):33-48. doi: 10.1080/10413200.2010.511423.

Watson, A., Timperiod, A., Brown, H., Hinkley, T. and Hesketh, K.D. (2019) Associations between organized sport participation and classroom behavior outcomes among primary school-aged children. PLoS ONE 14(1), 1-12. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0209354.

West, J.J. (2013) Doing more harm than good: Negative health effects of intimate-partner violence campaigns. Health Marketing Quarterly 30(3), 195-205.

Wheeler, S. (2012). The significance of family culture for sports participation. International Review for the Sociology of Sport 47(2), 235-252.

White, J., Kennedy, L.M. & Christie, M.E. (2017) Do perceptions of the red-tailed hawk indicate a human-wildlife conflict on the island of LaGonaive, Haiti? Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography 38(2), 258-268.

Ybarra, M.; Mitchell, K.; Kosciw, J. & Korchmaros, J. (2015) Understanding the linkages between bullying and suicidal ideation in a national sample of LGB and heterosexual youth in the United States. Prevention Science 16(3), 451-462.

Advance Preparation

Have Assignment 2 availabile in class.

Have the Flow Chart for Articles You Read available in class -- you need to fill out part of it. One of the two partners should bring it on a computer.

Systematized Definitions of Constructs in Social Theory -- no need to read in advance but have it present for the class exercise and use this for assignment 2 (The research question)

Recommended Readings -- all good for Sharing Materials

Donham, J., Heinrich, J.A., Bostwick, K.A. (2010) Mental models of research: Generating authentic questions. College Teaching 58(1), 8-14.

Hudson-Barr, D. (2005) From research idea to research question: The who, what, where, when and why. Journal for Specialists in Pediatric Nursing 10(2), 90-92.

Law, R. (2004). From research topic to research question: A challenging process. Nurse Researcher 11(4), 54-66.

Pidgeon, N. & Henwood, K. (2004) Grounded theory. In M. Hardy and A. Bryman (Eds.), Handbook of Data Analysis (pp. 625-648). London: Sage Publications. Grounded theory is NOT a theory, but rather an approach to theoretical development and to making theoretical contributions. E-reserve. NOTE: shows up under Hardy & Bryman on the e-reserve.

Silverman, D. (2005) "Selecting a topic" p. 77-94 in Doing Qualitative Research, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks. E-reserve. May be helpful if you do not have an idea for your projects this semester. I think the lecture by Fiala is more helpful.

Swift, J.A. & Tischler, V. (2010) Qualitative research in nutrition and dietetics: Getting started. Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics 23 (6), 559-566.

Additional Resources

Bryman, A. & Cramer, D. (2004) Qualitative research and the postmodern turn. In M. Hardy and A. Bryman (Eds.), Handbook of Data Analysis (pp. 667-681). London: Sage Publications.

Kushner, K.E. & Morrow, R. (2003) Grounded theory, feminist theory, critical theory: Toward theoretical triangulation. Advances in Nursing Science 26 (1), 30-43.

Nelson, D.B. (2002) Family functioning measures: convergent and discriminant validity. Journal of Theory Constructing & Testing 7(1), 18-26.

Van T Klooster, S.A., Van Asselt, M.B. & Koenis, S.P. (2002) Beyond the essential contestation: construction and deconstruction of regional identity. Ethics, Place & Environment 5(2), 109-121.

Walker, C.A. (2002) Making assumptions explicit. Journal of Theory Constructing & Testing 7(2), 37-38.