Nonprofit Organizations as Bridges and Mediating Structures: How
They Work Within the Community.

Submitted by: Elizabeth B. Bolton, Ph.D. Professor of Community Development

Mendel, Stuart C. “The Ecology of Games between Public Policy and Private Action.” Nonprofit Management & Leadership, vol 13, no. 3 Spring 2003.

Introduction

The number of nonprofit organizations has increased dramatically in the United States since the 1950s. The exact cause for this increase is attributed to the reaction of people to large scale federal programs after World War II affecting urban renewal, civil rights, welfare, and mortgage lending. In the 1980s these community based organizations began to assume a role of mediating structures between federal, state, and local policy and the people in the communities. Many of these nonprofit organizations became very adept in their ability to identify, accommodate and use the constituencies at primary, secondary and tertiary levels.

Methodology

Mendel uses the bridge metaphor to explain the rise in the number of nonprofits and the process leaders use to make changes in and protect the assets of their communities. Nonprofits as a bridge between constituencies, community issues, institutions and as a mediator in the environment of interrelationships is the theme of Mendel’s article in which he explores the concept of games as the connector for public-private partnerships. In this context games are described as interrelationships in which one group uses the goals and objectives of another group to achieve their own goals and objectives. For example, the real estate developer may use the goals and objectives of the banker to achieve his/her goals and objectives and the banker may use the goals and objectives of a politician to achieve his/her goals. This article looks at nonprofit organizations as the mediating structures that provide a bridge between the private individual and the large institutional structures. There are multiple bridges and multiple games going on at one time and new bridges are being formed as nonprofits change their focus, mission and funding.

Main Ideas

Mendel’s concept of nonprofits as a bridge and as a mediating structure is similar to Warren’s (1978) description of the community’s vertical pattern that provides ties to the larger society and culture and his horizontal pattern which provides the ties that bind the local units to each other. “A community’s vertical pattern was defined as the structural and functional relationship of its various social units and subsystems to extra community systems. Its horizontal pattern was defined as the structural and functional relationship of the community’s various social units and subsystems to each other “(Warren, p. 243).

Mendel and Warren seek to explain the interconnection between organizations and the larger culture and the relationship these organizations have to each other. Mendel sees these connections as bridges and Warren sees vertical and horizontal connections within the community and external to the community. Using Warren’s vertical and horizontal connections or Mendel’s bridges is useful in seeing the potential of community based organizations to the larger culture and to each other. Understanding the connections and the “bridges” is useful in forming coalitions and building relationships with public and private partners that will benefit both the as well as the nonprofit sector. For the most part, the nonprofit organization literature treats these entities as good for the community because they provide services that are needed but not otherwise provided for. However Gus Newport (2005) says that many times these organizations inhibit community development and provide a disservice to the very constituency they seek to serve by obscuring from view the real issues. Instead of focusing on policy that could sustain their missions, they focus on competing for funding and publicity.

The ecology of games is described as the process whereby nonprofit organizations develop a web of interconnections with other institutions, both public and private and with other nonprofits. People in various communities are brought closer together by common goals on a shifting playing field that involves secondary and tertiary allies.

Nonprofits are also seen as mediating structures. Mendel cites the work of Berger and Neuhaus (1996) in describing mediating organizations as “structures that stand between people and impersonal institutions, for example, the neighborhood, the family, the church, and the voluntary associations”(p. 231). Three reasons are given for endorsing mediating structures. These mediating structures represented the work of the classical thinkers concerned with the ideologies of community. These mediating structures were at the center of the philosophy of the Great Society. “These mediating structures provided rallying points for people who challenged the size of government and its support of a welfare state in a society that was committed to private property, low taxes and individual effort” (Mendel, p. 232.)

Mendel provides a case history of the Union Mills Community Coalition (UMCC) to illustrate the ecology of games and the mediating influence of nonprofits. The UMCC area was a community composed of steel workers. The community’s property and vitality were directly related to the steel industry. As the steel industry began to decline and consolidate into fewer operations, the neighborhood population shifted. White working class residents who moved out and lower-income black residents moved in. The constituent groups shifted in their significance in the community. The community changed in its relationship to the larger region and to institutions within the community. The churches in the neighbors became meeting places for community organizers striving to connect the concerns of the people to the local government and most specifically to the economically important and powerful corporate interests of the area.

In the 1980’s the emphasis shifted from the welfare state of the Great Society to providing economic opportunity in the private sector. “Corporate leaders and private grant makers, tired of endless demands for operating support by increasingly strident grassroots neighborhood organizations like UMCC, began to fund economic development corporations whose mission was to preserve and enhance neighborhood wealth” (Mendel, p. 233). Eventually the neighborhood coalitions gave way to development corporations that emphasized housing in the community through rehabilitation, development and preserving older homes.

Implications for Extension

As communities change so do the constituencies within them. When working with community based nonprofit organizations, the implications in this article for extension are as follows:

• Consider multiple constituencies rather than a single group which may lose its political and or economic influence over time.
• The concept of mediating structures as bridging strategies between policy makers, private enterprise and community organizations is a useful tool for extension educators who work nonprofit boards and community leaders.
• Practicality can be a guide for the nonprofit organization in that strategic thinking is required to determine where the organization fits into the community and how it is governed. Extension educators can help the nonprofit think strategically using the goals of other groups and organizations to reach their own.
• Nonprofit organizations have an obligation to remember that they are part of the larger system that delivers services, utilizes resources and protects the wealth and assets of the community. Extension educators can help these nonprofits see their important role in the community.
• Decision makers in nonprofits should understand the relevance of their organization to the larger environment and how it functions.
• Extension faculty have an obligation to understand the community and its functions, the institutions and how they relate to each other and the larger society in addition to the target audience to which we direct our programs.
• Look for, and at, the big picture. You will be amazed at what is there and how it operates.

References

Newport, G. (Winter, 2005). “Why are we replacing furniture when half the neighborhood is missing?” The nonprofit quarterly. (pp. 32-40).

Warren, R.L. (1987). The community in America. Third Edition. University Press of America: Lanham, Md. (pp. 240-304).

School and Youth Violence: Profiles, Problems, and Solutions

Submitted by: Kate Fogarty, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Youth Development

School violence and crime, particularly serious violent offenses, are well-publicized in the media, leading the American public to believe they are occurring at alarming rates. Before parents hastily decide to home school their youth based on what they see in the media, it is important to examine the research. This article discusses findings from representative studies of the actual prevalence of violence and crime in the schools.

In the past decade the rates of serious violent victimization (rape, robbery, sexual and/or aggravated assault) of 12-18 year-old youth in schools have been consistently less than rates of such crimes against youth in non-school settings. For example, among the 26.4 million 12-18 year-old students enrolled in schools, there were 150,000 incidents of serious violent offenses whereas 320,000 such incidents occurred outside school settings (National Crime Victimization Survey, 2003).

Moreover, rates of victimization of 12-18 year-old students have been steadily on the decline in the past decade. Between 1995 and 2003 the percentage of 12-18 year-old students who reported being victims of crime in school declined from 10% to 5%. Alternatively, less serious and violent crimes, such as theft, are more likely to occur in schools than outside of schools. Twelve to eighteen year-old students were victims of 1.2 million thefts on school grounds as opposed to 750,000 incidents of theft outside the school setting. About 5% of 12 to 18-year-old students reported being victimized at school in which 4% reported theft and the remaining 1% reported being a victim of serious violent crime.

In-School and Out of School Violence: Profiles of Victims

The National Crime Victimization Survey (2003) reported the following profiles of youth victims of in-school and out-of-school violence:

• Males were more likely than females to be victims of crime and serious violent offenses, ones that took place both in and outside school settings.
• Youth aged 12-14 were more likely to be victims of crime and serious violence in school than 15-18 year-old students.
• Older students, aged 15-18 years, were more likely than their younger peers to be victims of crime and serious violence that took place outside of school.
• No differences were found in rates of theft in school by age or sex.
• White and Black students were more likely to have experienced theft than Hispanic students.
• No differences were found in rates of serious violent crime (whether in or out of school) by age, race/ethnicity, or sex.

Violent Behavior in Schools: Use of Weapons

The Youth Risk Behavior Survey (2003) reported the following findings on types of school-related violence:

• Male 9^th – 12^th graders were more likely than females (12% versus 6%) to have been threatened or injured with a weapon on school property.
• Urban students were more likely than suburban students to report having been threatened or injured with a weapon on school property. The difference (11% versus 9%) was not statistically significant. In other words, there was not enough evidence to prove the difference was found by more than chance.
• Native American students were more likely to have been threatened or injured with a weapon on school property than all other racial/ethnic groups.
• Ninth graders were more likely to have been threatened or injured by a weapon on school property than tenth graders (12% versus 9%).

Violent Incidents Reported at School

The School Survey on Crime and Safety polled public school principals to report rates of serious violent crimes (rape, sexual battery, physical attack, fight with a weapon, threatening with a weapon, and robbery with or without a weapon). The survey found:

• 71% of public schools experienced at least one violent incident in the 1999-2000 school year and 36% of public schools reported such incidents to the police.
• Urban schools were more likely than suburban schools to report violent incidents to the police. Seventy-seven percent of city schools had at least one violent incident and 44% reported at least one violent incident to the police.
• 86% of public schools experienced one or more incident of crime (including nonviolent) in the 1999-2000 school year.
• 92% of high schools or junior high schools, 87% of middle schools, and 61% of elementary schools had experienced at least one violent incident.

The effects of school violence on children and teachers include:

• depression and adjustment problems
• poor academic performance
• truancy and school dropout
• (for teachers) disillusionment with and/or leaving the profession.

In light of the damage that school violence does to students, teachers, and school systems, prevention is crucial. These findings point to ways in which intervention has worked over the past decade as well as future directions to go in order to prevent school violence. Suggestions for reducing youth violence, both in and out of school, include:

Commit to raising children safely and effectively.

Programs that serve parents, children, and child care providers need to be designed to promote positive discipline, effective communication, and investment of quality time between parents and their children.

Make prevention and intervention a reality.

Implement programs serving family and school audiences and evaluate their effectiveness.

Support our schools.

Extension programs such as those provided by 4-H and Family and Consumer Sciences have effectively worked with school audiences (teachers, students, and administrators) in educational efforts promoting life skills that youth need to succeed.

Create collaborations among families, schools, and other institutions in the community.

Cooperative Extension, through Family and Consumer Science and 4-H educational programs effectively create such collaborations to provide youth with socialization opportunities to develop in positive ways.

References

DeVoe, J.F., Peter, K., Noonan, M., Snyder, T.D., and Baum, K. (2005). Indicators of School Crime and Safety: 2005 (NCES 2006–001/NCJ 210697). U.S. Departments of Education and Justice. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Santrock, J.W. (2007). Adolescence. (11^th Edition). Boston: McGraw-Hill.

Impact of Foster Care on Development

Submitted by Heidi Liss Radunovich, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Human Development

Lawrence, C.R., Carlson, E.A., & Egeland, B. “The Impact of Foster Care on Development.” Development and Psychopathology, 18, (2006). (accessed August 4, 2006).

Introduction

Children in at-risk homes, particularly when there is strong suspicion of abuse or neglect, are frequently placed temporarily or for longer duration in the foster care system. Approximately 9,000-10,000 Florida children are in foster care at any given time, although over the course of a year the number of children who experience foster care is significantly higher (Florida Department of Children and Families). Given the high number of children requiring foster care it is important to understand how this system impacts the children that it serves. This study examined the impact of such placement on children’s emotional and behavioral functioning.

Methodology

The study sample was taken from a larger study in Minnesota. The group chosen for study included a total of 189 children: 46 children who were placed in foster care for various reasons (69% had been mistreated); 46 children who were mistreated by their caregiver(s) but remained in the home with their caregiver(s); and 97 children who were not placed in foster care and did not suffer from mistreatment, but who were at-risk for other reasons (poverty, young parent, unstable home life, etc.).

The children’s behavioral and emotional functioning was evaluated during four points: early childhood (ages 12 months to Kindergarten), and before any potential placement in foster care; at around 6^th grade (or at time of release from foster care); at age 16; and at age 17. The researchers evaluated the children by looking at the strength of their relationship with their caregiver, teacher ratings of behavior and emotional functioning, and researcher measurement of the children’s behavior and developmental level.

Main Ideas

The researchers found that children who were placed in foster care were more likely to have emotional and behavioral problems than those who were maltreated but stayed with their caregivers or other at-risk children, even when controlling for family income and functioning prior to the start of foster care placement. Length of time in foster care, age at placement, and number of foster care placements did not appear to affect outcome, just whether a child was placed in foster care or not.

Children who were placed in foster care with caregivers who were unfamiliar to them (not family or a family friend), had significantly worse emotional adjustment when leaving foster care compared to those who were placed with familiar caregivers, those remaining with caregivers who maltreated them, and other at-risk children. By age 17, differences among the studied groups did not appear to be significant. Although this was a relatively small sample from one geographic region, looking at children over time, and getting information about how the children are functioning prior to be placed in foster care, makes this an important study.

Implications for Extension Programs

These findings are important for county faculty to keep in mind when working with both foster parents and families who have children that have been part of the foster care system. Children from such families appear to be at higher risk for having behavioral and emotional problems. If a client you are working with has a child with emotional and behavioral problems and needs a referral for more intensive services, here are some suggestions:

1. If applicable, refer the parent to speak with the school guidance counselor. Sometimes guidance counselors can provide or obtain intervention services for the child at school, so this is a good first step. If school intervention is not enough, guidance counselors offer a wealth of information for parents on local resources for evaluation and treatment.
2. Many communities have local mental health services providers, so it is good to familiarize yourself with where families can go in your area to obtain such services. Some providers offer private services, and may or may not take insurance. Public providers (i.e., community mental health centers), often provide services at lower cost, and generally accept clients with private or federally funded insurance (Medicare, Medicaid, Medipass, etc.).
3. Children who have been in protective custody may be eligible for special programs and services. Contact your local child protection team for information on services available for children who have been or are currently in protective custody. Here is a statewide list: http://www.cms-kids.com/ContactUs/cptdir.pdf

Remember, if you believe that a child is currently being abused, neglected or abandoned, you are required to report this to the Department of Children and Families at:

1-800-96-ABUSE(1-800-962-2873). They will ask for information about the name and contact information for the child, information about why you suspect abuse/neglect/abandonment, and your name and contact information, as well as your relationship to the child.

Conclusion

This study suggests that being placed in the foster care system puts children at risk for more behavioral and emotional problems above and beyond what would be expected for children who have been maltreated. Children placed with unfamiliar caregivers (not a relative or family friend) are even more at risk for emotional problems. Here are some links that may be helpful in working with families who have foster children or have had a child removed and placed in foster care:

Florida Institute for Family Involvement

Florida KidCare (for uninsured children)

National Center on Shaken Baby Syndrome

National Parenting Center

Sexual Abuse Treatment Program

Prevention of falls and consequent injuries in elderly people

Submitted by: Carolyn S. Wilken, Ph.D., M.P.H.

Prevention of Falls and Consequent Injuries in Elderly People. Kannus, P., Sievanen, H, Palvanen, M., Jarvinen, T. & Parkkan, J. Lancet 2005; 366: 1885–93 Retrieved September 17, 2006.

Introduction

Injuries from falls is a serious concern for older adults, their family members and the professionals who provide care for them. An elderly person who falls may suffer long-term pain, disability, and even death. As the number of older adults continues to rise, the number of falls is expected to increase correspondingly. Researchers have found that fall prevention includes several components, including regular exercise including both strength and flexibility training, attention to nutrition particularly vitamin D and calcium supplements, reducing or withdrawing certain medications, vision assessments such as cataract surgery, and an environmental evaluation to remove tripping hazards and lighting deficiencies. These prevention methods apply both to elders living at home and those living in institutions.

Methodology

This article is a review of current research (up to May 31, 2005) related to falls among the elderly population world-wide. Articles included in this review were published in two premier medical databases Medline and PubMed, relevant journals and congress abstracts.

Main Ideas

Falls are a significant cause of injury and death among older adults, particularly elderly women. Risk of falling is important among both community dwelling elders and those residing in institutions as 30% of people over 65 years of age living in the community fall each year, and nearly half of older adults living in an institution fall. A key concern regarding falls is that more than half of those who fall will likely suffer additionally falls over time. Furthermore, injuries are the fifth leading cause of death among the elderly, and 80% of these injuries are the result of falling. Among those over 65 who fall, 20% need medical attention (5% for fractures, including head injuries). Statistics regarding falls generally double for women over the age of 75 because of the high incidence of osteoporosis.

After reviewing the literature on falls, the authors recommend a multi-pronged approach, including exercise, diet, medication evaluation, and environmental adaptations. Exercise recommendations involve both strength building through weight bearing exercises (i.e. standing, walking, and stair climbing) and flexibility training such as Tai Chi. Strength and flexibility promote balance, reaction time and gait. What we don’t understand is the frequency and level of exercise needed at various ages.

The literature appears to be consistent in the recommendation of Calcium and vitamin D supplementation as a positive approach to reducing injury resulting from falls by increasing bone density. Because calcium and vitamin D are both reasonably inexpensive the combination serves as an effective population-based injury prevention strategy.

Although only one study was found to include in this review, the reduction of psychotropic drugs used primarily as treatment for mental illness, reduction of the drugs resulted in a 66% reduction in the number of falls.

Researchers have found that professional analysis of the home environment and related adaptations can lead to a significant reduction in the number of falls for those at high risk of falling.

Although past research has focused on single factors associated with falling, such as exercise, diet, nutritional supplements and the environment, the authors recommend additional research on the effectiveness of multi-factorial approaches to reducing the risks of falling. Also needed is research based on diverse populations (e.g. age, ethnicity), and including elders suffering myriad illnesses, utilizing a variety of drugs, and focusing on numerous causes of falling in addition to osteoporosis.

Implications for Extension Programs

Because falls are a constant worry to older adults, their families and their caregivers, the topic provides an important opportunity for Extension educators to combine programming in nutrition, housing, health (exercise), and aging. Such programs can be directed at older adults as well as their caregivers and can be presented at senior centers, nutrition/feeding sites, and many other program locations.

For programming materials directly related to falls, see Aging in the 21^stCentury for the program developed by Kristen Smith titled Florida Injury Prevention Programs for Seniors (FLIPS). The EDIS publication is found at http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/FY629 and the related PowerPoint presentation can also be found at the IFAS Presentations website at http://presentations.ifas.ufl.edu/ The complete FLIPS program can be found at the Florida Department of Elder Affairs website at http://elderaffairs.state.fl.us/english/flips.html A complete series on fall prevention is also on EDIS and can be found at EDIS Topic Series: Fall Prevention

Mothers and Daughters: Interpersonal Approaches to Body and Dieting

Submitted by: Eboni J. Baugh, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Family Life

Ogle, J. P. & Damhorst, M. L. (2003). “Mothers and Daughters.  Interpersonal approaches to body image and dieting.” Journal of Family Issues, 24, pp. 448 - 487.

Introduction

This article was an interpretive study on the relationship between mothers and daughters with respect to communication about body image and dieting.  Researchers focused on the interactions between mothers and daughters to discover patterns of behavior that send messages about body image and dieting.  This relationship is a reciprocal one, where both individuals influence and socialize each other about self and bodily appearance (Ogle & Damhorst, 2003).  Because of both the verbal and non-verbal communication exchanged within this relationship, daughters tend to mirror the attitudes and behaviors of their mothers.

Methodology

The authors conducted in-depth interviews with 20 pairs of mothers and daughters (N = 40) from suburban areas of a Midwest capital city.  Girls enrolled in health and wellness courses offered at area high schools and their mothers were recruited.  All of the participants were White, middle to upper-class individuals with the exception of one daughter who identified herself as “mixed”.  Mothers ranged in ages from 37 to 47 (M = 43.3 years) and daughters were 15 to 18 years old (M = 16.1 years).  The pairs were asked open-ended questions about on physical appearance, and body-related thoughts, behaviors, and interactions with each other. 

Main Ideas

Data from this study discovered shared dieting patterns and concerns among mother and daughter pairs.  The majority of the daughters described themselves as “recreational dieters” which paralleled the experiences of their mothers.  Authors reported that mother behavior in the mid to late adolescence years had the greatest influence on their daughters dieting behaviors.  In fact, the three girls in the sample who reported never dieting were the daughters of the 3 mother who also reported never dieting.  This highlights the importance of the positive relationship that a mother’s dieting behavior has on her daughter.

From this study, four patterns of communication about dieting and body appearance emerged from the mother-daughter relationship:  the direct verbal approach, the avoidance/guardedness approach, the modeling approach, and the laissez-faire approach.

Direct Verbal Approach

Open expression of thoughts and opinions about each others body and what behaviors should be taken.  Examples include encouragement (positive statements about body), dissuasion (discouraging the other from dieting for weight loss), and fault-finding (negative, critical statements).  In the current study this is the most common method of communication used between mothers and daughters.

Avoidance/Guardedness Approach

Avoiding or evading conversations about body and diet.  This is usually done by mothers and daughters who do not want to overemphasis appearance and/or are concerned about hurting the others feelings. 

Modeling Approach

Mothers’ body and diet related attitudes and behaviors influencing the same in their daughters.  Usually daughters will adopt behaviors that they observe from their mothers and imitate them.  This approach could also result in some of the avoidance behaviors discussed.  Examples include “fat talk” (making statements about weight gain and/or dislike of body) and preoccupation with body and diet. 

Laissez-faire Approach

Mothers and daughters left each other alone with respect to body and diet.  These women felt that their opinions about each other were not a needed component of their relationship and/or carried little influence on the others behavior.

Implications for Extension Programs

Extension agents working with parents, especially mothers, can highlight the importance of proper communication about body issues and dieting with their daughters.  Parents often feel replaced by the child’s peer group and that they are not a major influence in the lives of their children.  In addition, some parents may not recognize the messages sent through their own behaviors and attitudes, and the subsequent action taken by their children.  This data provides information to teach parents and children the proper ways to communicate ideas about body appearance and dieting behaviors.  It also encourages open, direct communication between mother and daughters about body appearance and dieting issues.  Educational programs can be developed to inform parents and children on the four patterns of communication found within this relationship, focusing on the healthy ones.

Conclusion

Mother’s attitudes about their bodies and their dieting behaviors greatly influence the same in their daughters.  Regardless of where they reside on the spectrum between embracing a thin female body to rejecting society’s obsession with thinness, mothers and daughters influence each other’s opinions about these issues.  This article suggests that this bi-directional relationship and the communication patterns found within should be a focus of parents and those professionals who work with parents.

Self-Esteem Assessment of Adolescents Involved in Horsemanship Activities, Saunders-Ferguson, K.E., Barnett, R.V., Culen, G. & TenBroeck, S.

Submitted by: Rose Barnett, Assistant Professor, Youth Development

A recent study conducted at the 4H Horse Camp examined the impact of horsemanship activities on adolescent self-esteem (Saunders-Ferguson, Barnett, Culen & TenBroeck, 2006). Using Sonstroem’s Exercise and Self-Esteem Model, this study specifically examined the impact of horsemanship activities on adolescent self-esteem, personal horsemanship attributes, and physical competence, physical self-efficacy, and physical acceptance of adolescents. The goal was to assess whether self-esteem changed as a result of exposure to various horsemanship lessons during the six-day program. Pre and post surveys were used to assess personal horsemanship attributes, such as: responsibility, confidence, motivation, anxiety, and mood, in relation to each individual’s involvement in horse related activities. Physical competence, physical self-efficacy, and physical acceptance were also evaluated. Specifically, the research questions of this study are as follows:

• Are levels of adolescent self-esteem increased by participation in horsemanship activities?
• Are levels of adolescent personal horsemanship attributes increased by participation in horsemanship activities?
• Are levels of adolescent physical competence increased by participation in horsemanship activities?
• Are levels of adolescent physical acceptance increased by participation in horsemanship activities?

The study examined 122 adolescents, aged 12-18 years, who participated in the Florida 4-H Horsemanship School during the summer of 2005. Information describing the study was mailed to all 137 pre-registered youth in care of their parents. All of the youth that were involved in this study voluntarily agreed to participate and had received parental consent prior to completing any instruments in relation to this study.

The Survey of Youth Participating in Equine Activities” questionnaire consisted of five scales. The scales are all five point Likert-like format, except for Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale which is a four point Likert-like format. The items in this questionnaire served the purpose of gathering qualitative data in regard to:

Specific personal experiences that may have affected students in the horsemanship school; and

New horsemanship skills they learned during their enrollment in the Florida 4-H Horsemanship School.

The pre test internal consistency coefficient (Cronbach’s Alpha) from these composites was 0.885. The Cronbach’s Alpha without the Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale was 0.880. The post test Cronbach’s Alpha for the total composite was 0.914, and without the Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale was 0.909.

The demographic data included gender, age, and non-horse related activity involvement in spare time. Of this sample, 108 (88.5%) of the respondents were female and 13 (10.7%) of the respondents were male. The respondents ranged in age from 12-18 years with the mean age of 14.03 years. A total of 18.0% were 12 years old, 28.7% were 13 years old, 17.2% were 14 years old, 16.4% were 15 years old, 9.0% were 16 years old, 9.0% were 17 years old, and 1.6% were 18 years old. Adolescents also responded that they were involved in a number of other activities that were not related to horseback riding. Overall, 54.9% of adolescents played sports, 16.4% partook in service projects, 40.2% worked, 20.5% participated in religious groups, 51.6% watched television, 45.1% surfed the internet, 77.9% spent time with friends, and 36.1% were involved in other activities.

The horsemanship factors measured respondent’s number of years of horseback riding, frequency of horseback riding, number of times attended Horsemanship School, and skill level or riding classification. The participants number of years of horseback riding was as follows: less than one year, 1.6%; one year, 2.5%; two years, 5.7%; three years, 4.1%; four years, 10.7%; five years, 9.8%; six years, 9.0%; seven years, 13.9%; and eight years or more, 42.6%. Of the participants surveyed, a total of 0.0% rode less than once a month, 2.5% rode at least once a month, 10.7% rode twice a month, 61.5% rode once a week, 25.4% rode multiple times a week, and 0.0% rode everyday. Forty-eight respondents (39.3%) reported that they had never attended the Florida 4-H Horsemanship School, 27 (22.1%) attended once, 20 (16.4%) attended two times, 10 (8.2%) attended three times, 7 (5.7%) attended four times, 10 (8.2%) attended five or more times. A total of 6.9% of participants classified their horsemanship skill level as beginner, 39.2% classified their horsemanship skill level as intermediate, and 53.9% classified their horsemanship skill level as advance.

Findings

Horsemanship and Self Esteem

Are levels of self-esteem increased by participation in horsemanship activities? Comparing the pre test and the post test, there was a small, but significant change. For the pre test, the overall mean score for Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale was 3.25. In the post test, the overall score of the Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale was 3.31 (SD=.69) (Table 1). This indicated that there was a positive change in self-esteem by comparison of the means.

Personal Horsemanship Attributes and Horsemanship Activities

Are levels of personal horsemanship attributes increased by participation in horsemanship activities? The mean score for the personal horsemanship attributes was comprised of mean scores from the attributes of responsibility, confidence, decrease of anxiety, elevation of mood, and motivation. Comparing the pre test results to the post test results, changes were found in the means and standard deviations. The pre test mean for the personal horsemanship attributes scale was 4.07 (SD=1.03), which indicated that the participants had a high level of personal horsemanship attributes prior to their horsemanship participation in the Florida 4-H Horsemanship School. The post test mean score for the personal horsemanship attribute was 4.05 (SD=1.00). The pre test mean for the responsibility attribute was 4.61 (SD=.70), the confidence mean was 4.21 (SD=.89), the anxiety mean was 3.53 (SD=1.11), the mood mean was 3.85 (SD=1.12), and the motivation mean was 4.08 (SD=.98).

Physical Competence and Horsemanship Activities

Are levels of physical competence increased by participation in horsemanship activities? The pre test mean score for the physical competency scale indicated that the participants had a high level of physical competence prior to participation in the study (M=4.21, SD=.94). There was a slight increase in the post test mean score for the physical competence, 4.24 (SD=.90).

Adolescent Physical Acceptance and Horsemanship Activities

Are levels of adolescent physical acceptance increased by participation in horsemanship activities? The post test total mean score for physical acceptance was 4.22 (SD=.72). This was a slight increase from the pre test mean score of 4.21 (SD=.74).

Discussion and Implications for Practice

Self-esteem change was found to be significant after the adolescents participated in horsemanship activities. While these findings cannot be proven as causal, results do indicate that there was a higher self-esteem for some reason after the youth attended the six-day residential horsemanship activities. Due to the fact that the adolescents were confined to the program site for these six days, and they rode an average of six hours per day; it is highly likely that the horsemanship activities were responsible at some level for this change.

Self-esteem development is an important component of adolescence. Many things in an adolescent’s life can influence change in self-esteem, such as: school, peers, and family. Self-esteem change can be both positive and negative, therefore, it is extremely important to emphasize positive developmental change and strive to prevent negative developmental change. A number of techniques have been used to help create positive developmental change in self-esteem. Many of these techniques are seen in the form of self-esteem development programs, which are commonly delivered through schools and clubs (Arnett, 2003).

A varied approach is required to effectively influence positive self-esteem development in a diverse population of adolescents. Horsemanship activities offer one approach. Extended periods of time working with and riding horses can create positive changes in adolescents (Smith, 2004). Activities, for example saddling, feeding, and riding horses can be powerful in affecting personal horsemanship attributes, including: motivation, responsibility, confidence, anxiety, and mood. By participating in horsemanship activities, adolescents can learn new skills and gain experiences useful for positive self-esteem development (Iannone, 2003).

It is imperative to further incorporate horsemanship activities in positive youth development programming for adolescents. Other horsemanship activities could be incorporated into programs that adolescents are involved in through their school, 4-H clubs and camps, and other youth organizations. Populations that might especially benefit from such a program might include special needs children, depressed youth, suicidal adolescents, and those with body image issues. Extension agents, schools, and community youth workers could consider the lengths of such a program for all youth, as well as any with special needs when making program planning decisions.

This study brought forth evidence that self-esteem can be influenced by horsemanship activities. Youth practitioners can use this knowledge to create youth development programs. The program designers can simply incorporate horsemanship activities into their curriculum or there can be specific programs designed to focus solely on adolescents and horsemanship activities. These types of programs can be used for all adolescents who are struggling to develop their self-esteem during adolescence.

References

Arnett, J.J. (2003). Adolescence and emerging adulthood: A cultural approach. Revised, 2^nd Edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Fox, K. (2000). Self-esteem, self-perceptions and exercise. International Journal of Sport Psychology 31, 228.

Greenwald, A. (2001). The effect of a therapeutic horsemanship program on emotionally disturbed boys. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences & Engineering 62 (2B), 1078.

Gullotta, T. & Adams, G. (2005). Handbook of adolescent behavioral problems. New York, NY: Springer Science + Business Media, Inc.

Iannone, V. (2003). Evaluation of a vocational and therapeutic riding program for severely emotionally disturbed adolescents. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences & Engineering 64 (3B), 1493.

Rosenberg, M. (1986). Conceiving the self. Krieger: Malabar, FL.

Rosenberg, M. (1989). Society and the adolescents self-image. Revised edition. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press.

Smith, C. (2004). Impact of equine activities on youth development. American Youth Horse Council.

Sonstroem, R., Harlow, L., & Josephs, L. (1994). Exercise and self-esteem: Validity of model expansion and exercise associations. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 16 (1), 29.

Sonstroem, R. & Morgan, W. (1989). Exercise and self-esteem: rationale and model. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 21 (3), 329.

Wood, P. & Hillman, S. (1996). Locus of control, self-concept, and self-esteem among at-risk African-American adolescents. Adolescence 31 (123), 597.

Low-Energy-Density Diets & High Diet Quality

Glenda L. Warren, MS, RD, CFCS, Associate Professor, Extension Nutritionist-Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program (EFNEP

Ledikwe,Jenny H, Blanck, Heidi M., Khan, Laura Kettel, Serdula, Mary K. Seymour, Jennifer D., Tohill, Beth C., and Rolls, Barbara J. “Low-Energy-Density Diets are Associated with High Diet Quality in Adults in the United States.” Journal of the American Dietetic Association volume 106 number 8, (August 2006 pages 1172-1180).

Introduction

Low-energy-density diets provide relatively few calories per gram of food. In this study the investigators examined food choices from two angles. One, they wanted to know more about the food choices of individuals who followed low-energy-density diets, and two they examined how these diets influenced nutrient adequacy.

Methodology

Interviewers administered twenty-four hour dietary recalls on two days that were three to ten days apart. Food choices were compared by low-, medium-, and high-energy-density.

The nutrient intakes were measured based on food intakes, and did not include the intake of water and nutrient supplements. Calculations for energy density did not include beverages.

Results

Who do you think had a higher diet quality? Those who consumed a lower energy density diet, generally consumed a higher quality diet characterized by these three features:

• Lower intakes of fat
• Higher intakes of fruits and vegetables
• Higher intakes of vitamins and minerals

These items were lowest for the participants who had the low-energy-density-diets:

• Percentage of energy from fats
• Percentage of energy from protein
• Percentage of energy from carbohydrates

Intakes were highest for these items in the diets that were low-energy-density diets:

• Vitamin A
• Vitamin C
• Vitamin B6
• Folate
• Iron
• Calcium
• Potassium

Based on the weight of the food eaten, the individuals who were on the low-energy-density diets were able to eat a larger amount of food; conversely, the individuals who were on the high-energy-density diets ate a lower weight of food but they had a higher intake of calories. This result occurred because of the amount of foods in the low energy density diet pattern that were higher in water and low in fats. These individuals also consumed less of the beverages that contributed calories to the diet.

Implications For Extension Programs

The 2005 Dietary Guidelines for Americans emphasize the concept of nutrient density. Nutrient dense foods provide substantial amounts of vitamins and minerals and relatively fewer calories. Such foods fit the description of the foods most often selected in the low-energy-density diets.

Teaching people the concept of low-energy-density as a key feature of a healthy eating pattern is consistent with the 2005 Dietary Guidelines for Americans. Teach consumers to consider choosing nutrient dense forms of foods from each food group and in the amounts recommended for individual calorie levels.

This approach is also consistent with the healthy eating plan, based on the Dietary Guidelines for Americans.

The Dietary Guidelines for Americans healthy eating plan:

• Emphasizes fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and fat-free or low-fat milk and milk products.
• Includes lean meats, poultry, fish, beans, eggs, and nuts.
• Is low in saturated fats, trans fats, cholesterol, salt (sodium), and added sugars.

The idea of being able to eat a larger amount of food and still have lower energy density may be of great appeal to consumers. Ensure that program participants understand and select the types of foods that fit this description.

Additional References

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Agriculture. Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2005. 6th Edition, Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, January 2005.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Agriculture. Finding Your Way to a Healthier You: Based on the Dietary Guidelines for Americans.HHS Publication number: HHS-ODPHP-2005-01-DGA-B; USDA Publication number: Home and Garden Bulletin No. 232-CP

Are Commercially Manufactured Shelf-Stable, Dairy-based, Pourable Salad Dressings Potentially Hazardous Foods?

Amy Simonne, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Food Safety and Quality

Many condiments, sauces, and side items to accompany foods are available in the U.S. Despite this, the information regarding these items as far as food safety with regard to time and temperature has not been readily available. In a normal situation, most people place these items in the refrigerator for storage after opening. However, during an emergency situations such when natural disaster or power outage occurred, consumers had a hard time deciding if some of these items are safe to use or which item to keep and which item to discard.

Safe handling information for some common condiments is available from various sources. For example, according to the current USDA/FSIS emergency preparedness document, certain condiment items such as relish, taco sauce, mustard, catsup, olives, pickle, Worcestershire, soy, barbecue, and Hoisin sauces, and opened vinegar-based dressing, are considered safe even if they are opened, and at above 50ºF (10ºC) for over 8 hours. On the other hand, items such as opened fish sauces, oyster sauce, or creamy-based dressing found in that condition must be discarded (1). Still, handling information for many more condiment items are lacking.

A recent study by scientists at the University of Georgia provided additional information on commercially manufactured shelf-stable, dairy-based, pourable salad dressings (2).

The objectives: 1) to determine death rates of Salmonella, Escherichia coli O157:H7, and Listeria monocytogenes in three commercially manufactured full-fat ranch salad dressings, three reduced-fat ranch salad dressings, two full-fat blue cheese salad dressings, and two reduced-fat blue cheese salad dressings, and 2) to affirm the expectation that these salad dressings do not support growth of these pathogens (disease causing organisms).

Methodology

The researchers conducted a microbial challenge study on 10 shelf-stable, dairy-based, pourable salad dressings produced by three commercial manufactures representing 70 to 75% of the retail sales of this group of dressings in the US. They conducted the experiments three times for each product in the period of 4 months. Dressings, supplied by manufacturers, were stored at 25ºC until the inoculation study. The researchers inoculated three foodborne pathogens (Salmonella, Escherichia coli O157:H7, and Listeria monocytogenes) into salad dressings stored at 25ºC for up to 15 days. Most of the microbe strains were isolated from acid foods or from patients with illness associated with eating these foods (2).

Results

For Salmonella after 24 hours of inoculation (and storage at 25ºC) the organism was not detected in any of the 10 salad dressings regardless of the level of added organisms. For E. coli, and Listeria, overall, after 6 days of inoculation, the organisms were not detected, but there are some variations between different dressings. Overall, this study demonstrated that the death rate of Salmonella, E coli O157:H7, and L. monocytogenes in 10 commercially manufactured shelf-stable, dairy-based, pourable full-fat and reduce-fat ranch and blue cheese salad dressing stored at 25ºC is rapid. Salmonella died most rapidly, followed by E. coli and Listeria. Among these three disease-causing bacteria, L. monocytogenes exhibited the highest resistance imposed by these salad dressings. Typically, it takes at least 14 days for manufacturers to distribute these products to the food service. Results of this study show that large population of pathogens tested would die before unopened bottles of dressing reach the consumer. In case of contamination after opening, the test microorganisms would die quite rapidly at 25ºC. Results of this study showed that commercially manufactured shelf-stable, dairy-based, pourable full-fat and reduced-fat ranch and blue cheese salad dressings stored at 25ºC should not be considered as potentially hazardous foods (time-temperature control for safety of food) as defined by the FDA Food Code (4).

Take Home Message

Although these salad dressings are not potentially hazardous foods (do not support growth of disease-causing organisms), they will spoil. This is because these salad dressings only have been through mild heat treatments, thus, yeast, mold and other bacteria that are resistant to acids will survive and eventually grow to cause spoilage. Please note that this only apply to the manufactured salad dressing and not home made dressings. This is because in homemade dressing, the level of sanitation may not be the same.

During power outages or other emergencies, if these products are left without refrigeration for a few hours, they should still be safe, but they may become spoiled and eventually discarded. Consumers need to examine the product carefully for any sign of spoilage before use.

The data for this study does not apply to other foods that have pH of higher than 4.6 because inadequate refrigeration of foods that has pH higher than 4.6 (low acid foods) can increase risk of botulism. Find the estimated pH values of some foods and food products at the FDA website (3).

When in doubt, throw it out!

References

1. Keeping Food Safe During an Emergency, USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service, accessed 9/27/2006.

2. Beuchat, L.R., J.H. Ryu, B.B. Alder, and M.D. Harrison. Death of Salmonella, Escherichia coli O157:H7, and Listeria monocytogenes in Shelf-Stable, Dairy-based, Pourable salad dressings. J. Food Prot. 69(4): 801-814.

3. Approximate pH of foods and food products. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Accessed 10/2/2006.

4. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2005.Food code, Chapter 3. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services), Accessed September 29, 2006.

Linda B. Bobroff, Ph.D., RD, LD/N
Professor and Extension Nutrition Specialist

The number of people who are either overweight or obese is on the rise in the U.S. and many other countries. It is fairly well accepted that being obese can increase risk of death; however, it is not clear from the literature if being overweight (as opposed to obese) imparts a similar risk. Two recent papers examine this issue among older persons in the U.S. and Korea.

Background

Weight status often is defined as a ratio of body weight in kilograms to height in meters squared – the body-mass index or BMI. For adults, a BMI from 18.5 to 24.9 is defined as normal or healthy, 25.0 to 29.9 as overweight, and 30.0 or more as obesity (Adams 2006). In the U.S. during the last two decades the percent of adults who are overweight or obese has increased significantly. Approximately one-third of adults currently are classified as obese putting them at increased risk for diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and some cancers, and increasing their risk of premature death (USDHHS 2005).

Lifestyle practices often associated with obesity, including poor diet and physical inactivity, are second only to smoking as a leading cause of death, causing an estimated 400,000 deaths (16.6% of deaths) in 2000. These statistics, along with rising health care costs and an aging population, have stimulated significant interest in prevention and management of overweight and obesity (Mokdad 2004). The following studies examine the question of whether or not being overweight increases risk of death among adults in the U.S. and Korea.

U.S. Study (Adams 2006)

Researchers examined BMI in relation to the risk of death from any cause in a cohort of 527,265 men (313,047) and women (214,218) in six states in the U.S. who were 50 to 71 years old at their enrollment in the 10-year study. The researchers calculated BMIs from self-reported heights and weights, submitted via a mailed questionnaire. They calculated both current BMI, as well as BMI at age 50 based on recalled weight reported in a supplementary questionnaire mailed six months after the initial contact.

During the 10-year study, 61,317 participants died (42,173 men and 19,144 women). As expected, those in the lowest or highest categories of BMI (<18.5 and $40.0) had an increased risk of death. This was observed in men and women, all racial or ethnic groups, and at all ages at time of enrollment in the study. Among men, those in the BMI category <18.5 had a relative risk of death of 1.97 and those with a BMI $40.0 had a relative risk of death of 1.83. In other words, these men were approximately two times more likely to die than men in the healthy BMI range of 23.5-24.9 which was the reference group (relative risk = 1.00). In women, those in the BMI category <18.5 had a relative risk of death of 2.03 and those with a BMI $40.0 had a relative risk of death of 1.94, similar to the outcomes among men. These data constitute a U-shaped relation between BMI and risk of death, with the lowest risk in the middle BMI categories. With increasing age, the elevated risks at the two extremes of BMI declined slightly. These results support earlier studies that show increased risk of death in both underweight and obese persons.

When the researchers restricted their analysis to persons who were healthy and had never smoked, they found an increased risk of death in overweight as well as obese men and women. The associations were even stronger when they examined BMI in midlife (50 years of age) among those who had never smoked. In this cohort, the risk of death increased by 20 to 40 percent in overweight persons, and by two to three times among those who were obese.

Korean Study (Jee 2006)

This study also examined the association between BMI and risk of death. The subjects were 1,213,829 Korean men (770,556) and women (443,273) between 30 and 95 years of age, a wider age range. BMIs were calculated using height and weight measurements taken at physical examinations at local hospitals. The average BMI was 23.2.

In the 12 years of follow-up, 82,372 people died, including 58,312 men and 24,060 women. The lowest death rates were in men and women with BMI 23.0 to 24.9. As in the previous study, those at the lowest and highest BMI ranges had the highest death rates, although the differences were not as large in this study. In men, those in the BMI category <18.5 had a hazard ratio (basically the same statistic as the relative risk of the previous study) of 1.29 and those with a BMI $30.0 had a hazard ratio of 1.71. The reference in this study also was the BMI range of 23.0-24.9, with a hazard ratio of 1.0. In women, those in the BMI category <18.5 had a hazard ratio of 1.17 and those with a BMI $30.0 had a hazard ratio of 1.20. These are smaller difference than those observed in the U.S. study. There was little evidence of an effect of BMI on death risk among persons over 65 years of age.

Slightly higher death rates in persons with low BMIs in this population may be due to a relatively high incidence of respiratory diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and pneumonia in Korea, both of which are associated with severe weight loss. These researchers examined risk of death from specific causes. Risk of death from atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease increased with increasing BMI in men (hazard ratio 1.94 in men with BMI $32.0). Risk of death from cancer increased slightly among overweight persons and more significantly among those with a BMI over 30.

Overall, the BMIs of this cohort were lower than those of the U.S. cohort. However, the authors note that Asian populations tend to have higher percent body fat than do Western populations at a given BMI, placing them at higher risk for diseases at lower BMIs. Due to this difference, the World Health Organization has recommended that cutoff points for overweight and obesity should be lower for Asian populations (WHO 2000).

Implications for Extension

There is a substantial body of evidence that obese persons are at increased risk of disease and early death, although some health professionals disagree with this conclusion. The U.S. study reported here indicates that persons who are overweight also may be at risk of early death, although this likely will continue to be debated in the literature and the focus of future research. Both studies indicate that risk of death among older persons may be less affected by BMI, although this too may need further research.

As Extension professionals, we can make positive impacts in the lives of persons who are either overweight or obese by offering healthy lifestyle programs that focus on behaviors over which they have control (e.g., eating and exercise behaviors), and that promote health and physical fitness, regardless of body weight. Weight management programs may have their most positive impacts on persons in midlife who are obese since they are at high risk for chronic diseases and early death, and there is evidence that even small changes in body weight can greatly reduce risk of disease, such as diabetes (Knowler 2002). Still, our primary focus should be on positive lifestyle changes rather than weight loss, and on improved health parameters such as blood glucose, blood pressure, and blood lipids, since they indicate risk for the major disease that kill Americans.

The 11-session Toward Permanent Weight Management (TPWM) program recently was updated and is available for your use (CD will be available soon). TPWM focuses on healthful eating, physical activity, behavior modification, and size acceptance. Another weight management program, the University of Florida Women’s Weight Loss Research Program is part of an NIH-funded project that included the six-month weight loss intervention, followed by a 12-month maintenance program in three different formats (the research component). This study is being completed in six county Extension offices in north central Florida, and the team (Bobroff is one of the co-investigators) has applied for additional funding to test various program lengths and make it more adaptable for Extension.

References

Adams KF, Schatzkin A, Harris T, Kipnis V, Mouw T, Ballard-Barbash R, Hollenbeck A and Leitzmann MF. Overweight, obesity, and mortality in a large prospective cohort of persons 50 to 71 years old. New Engl J Med. 2006;355:763-778.

Jee SH, Sull JW, Park J, Lee S0Y, Ohrr H, Guallar E and Samet JM. Body-mass index and mortality in Korean men and women. New Engl J Med. 2006;355:779-787.

Knowler WC, Barrett-Connor E, Fowler SE, et al. Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin. N Engl J Med. 2002;346:393-403.

Mokdad AH, Marks JS, Stroup DF and Gerberding JL. Actual causes of death in the United States, 2000. JAMA 2004;291:1238-1245.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Agriculture. Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2005. 6^th Edition, Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, January 2005. Available at: www.healthierus.gov/dietaryguidelines. Accessed: September 28, 2006.