Research News You Can Use

Contents

Note from Nayda

This is the third quarterly issue of our series of research newsletters for use in your programs. We all appreciate your input and suggestions. We are very happy that our new research newsletter has been so useful. For your convenience, the name of each contributor is linked to their e-mail address.

New AMA Policy Viewing School Bullying as a Serious Health Problem -- Future Implications for Agents and Parents

Recently the American Medical Association (AMA) adopted a new anti-bullying policy that concluded that bullying is not just another childhood behavior that will eventually be outgrown, but rather a public health problem that can have long-term effects for both the bully and the victim. Children who don't escape the cycle of bullying are at higher risk for serious academic, social, emotional, and legal problems. This has been reinforced by a report by the AMA indicating that 7-15% of school-aged children are bullies and one in 10 school children is a victim of bullying (Peck, 2002).

Research has shown that bullying seems to increase through the elementary years, peak in the middle school/junior high school years, and decline during the high schools years (Batsche & Knoff, 1994). School size, racial composition, and school setting have not been found to be distinguishing factors in predicting bullying (Olweus, 1993). Physical aggression has been found to decrease with age, yet verbal aggression appears constant (Nolin, Davies & Chandler, 1995). Boys typically engage in and are victims of bullies more frequently than girls (Whitney & Smith, 1993).

While bullying is typically thought of as those direct behaviors, including teasing, threatening, taunting, and hitting by one or more students against a victim, it may also be an indirect attack by causing social isolation through intentional exclusion (Banks, 1997). The New York Times recent story on "relational aggression" -- when bullying involves tactics that lead to isolation or stigmatizing of other children -- expands the typical perception of bullying from aggression and sometimes including physical violence, into other domains of youth development that have a different set of potential consequences. Indeed, manipulating a "behind the back" rumor scenario that causes another to be shunned by peers was not included in the typical stimulus-response pattern previously addressed by those in the field, especially those new scenarios now being orchestrated by youth through the use of computer technology including Web sites, e-mails and chat rooms.

Adding to the problem are perceptions of bullying, often held by students who feel that victims are at least partially responsible for bringing bullying on themselves and that bullying toughens a weak person (Oliver, Hoover & Hazler, 1994). Parents are often unaware of a bullying problem and consequently do not talk with their children about it (Olweus, 1993). Students also often feel that adults are ineffective in their interventions, that they are infrequent, and that teachers seldom or never talk to them about bullying in their classes (Charach, Pepler, & Zeigler, 1995).

Many intervention programs are reframing the way they address bullying. Some programs focus on the resolution of conflict (Barnett, Adler, Easton & Howard, 2001) while others seem to involve the entire school community, and include bystanders, not just the bully and victim (Slaby, Wilson-Brewer & Dash, 1994). Yet there are certainly some steps that Extension agents, parents, and educators can take together to encourage involvement in creating a safe and fear-free learning environment.

1. Discuss the expanded definition of bullying so that parents and youth understand what now constitutes bullying. Provide leadership that demonstrates how to manage conflict in ways that help youth grow, continuously learn and become better citizens.
2. Encourage parents and youth to become more open-minded, tolerant and accepting. Help them to see things from other perspectives with an understanding of different cultures, values and norms.
3. Encourage children to report bullying, even when they are afraid to do so. Teach them that it is only when the silence is broken that the real work may begin.
4. Build conflict resolution skills through providing demonstrations of how to use steps provided by some model programs proven to be effective.
5. Listen carefully and encourage listening skills of others. Allow and encourage an open dialogue that shows how to get everyone's point of view out in the open.
6. Brainstorm solutions to the conflict and consider how each alternative solution may prompt a different outcome.
7. Discuss the proper use of technology in the home and at school. Encourage parents, students and educators to use home and school computers for productive use, discourage destructive "chatting" and instruct on careful and sporadic monitoring of Internet searches and web-sites created by youth.
8. Consider involving your pediatrician when physiological and/or psychological symptoms appear and are unexplained.
9. Build supportive home environments that allow families to discuss problems together and learn how to deal with frustration, stress, and anger.
10. Stay involved in local schools and activities for youth. Build on positive assets and protective factors for the individual, youth and community.

Written by: Dr. Rose Barnett (), Assistant Professor, Youth Development and Public Policy

What Grown-Ups Understand About Child Development

In June 2000, a national benchmark study was carried out to measure the level of accurate knowledge American adults have about child development issues. The study, entitled What Grown-ups Understand About Child Development, reveals that parents have some knowledge. However, there were significant gaps in understanding in important areas of child development. This article will report on five important questions about which parents had little knowledge of their child's development. For instance, when parents were asked at what age they thought an infant or young child begins to really take in and react to the world around them, 61% of parents of children birth to 6 years believe that this does not occur until a baby is two months or older. However, research studies have shown that babies only a few days old recognize and turn to their mother's voice over other voices. Observations and assessments of newborns also demonstrates that they react to all sorts of sensory stimuli -- touch, sounds, sights, etc. It is important for Extension professionals providing parent education programs to parents of newborns to help them understand the crucial impact they have in their baby's development from the minute the baby is born. Newborns need parents to respond to their cries, comfort them, and provide them with a safe environment in order to be able to develop trust, an essential component to healthy development.

The researchers also asked parents, "At what age do you think a baby or young child can begin to sense whether or not his parent is depressed or angry and can be affected by his parent's mood?" Fifty-five percent of parents with children birth to 6 years believe a baby must be 3 months or older to sense the mood of his parent while 31% believed a baby must be one year or older. Fifty percent of future parents also believed a baby must be one year or older. Contrary to parents' beliefs, research shows that babies as young as one month old can sense and will be affected by a parent who is depressed or angry. Extension professionals providing parent education programs can guide parents in understanding how sensitive babies are and how deeply they can be affected by the care they receive. Parents also need to understand the importance of support networks, especially if they are experiencing some kind of anger or depression. Babies need a caring adult who will respond to their needs in a positive and loving manner.

In another question, parents were asked about spoiling: " Some people say that a six-month-old, because he is so young, cannot be spoiled, no matter how much attention his parents give him. Others say that a six-month-old can be spoiled. Which do you agree more with?" Results disclosed that 57% of parents of young children believed a six-month-old can be spoiled, and an even greater number of grandparents (67%) believed you can spoil a six-month-old. One might ask, what does the research tells us in this area? Research in this area of child development reveals that six-month-olds are too young to spoil. In fact, research studies have shown that babies this age whose needs are responded to in a timely and sensitive way are actually more independent as they grow. In providing educational programs for parents of infants, Extension professionals can emphasize the importance of holding, cuddling, and comforting their infant in creating a healthy and loving relationship.

Another question which revealed a gap in parents' knowledge of child development was, "Should a 15-month-old be expected to share her toys with other children, or is this too young of an age to expect a child to share?" Fifty one percent of parents of children age birth to 3 years believe a 15-month-old should be expected to share. Again, research shows that toddlers this age do not have the social skills or intellectual ability to understand this concept. When offering educational programs to caregivers and parents, Extension professionals can stress the importance of guiding toddlers to learn the concept of sharing without punishing them for not doing so. With an adult guiding him, a toddler can be helped to find something to do while he waits his turn. In addition, a toddler can also be helped to find another toy he can offer his friend or the caregiver/parent can demonstrate ways they can both play with the toy. With lots of practice, and parents and caregivers who model appropriate behavior, 2- to 2 ½-year-olds can begin to do it on their own. Nevertheless, parents should not expect changes overnight or consistency.

Researchers also asked parents, "Should a three-year-old be expected to sit quietly for an hour or so, be it in church or in a restaurant, or is three years old too young to expect a child to sit quietly for an hour?" Twenty six percent of parents of children birth to six years believe that a three-year-old should be expected to sit quietly for an hour. Yet, child development research shows that generally, three-year-olds do not have the attention span or capacity to sit quietly for long periods of time. Extension professionals can guide parents and caregivers to better understand a three-year-old's abilities. Although not all three-year-olds are alike and some can tolerate sitting quietly for longer periods of time, it is best to engage a child in some quiet activities while she sits. This will keep her frustration level as well as the parent's, to a minimum. For example, while waiting in a doctor's office, a parent can bring along snacks, books the child enjoys reading, and whatever small, quiet toys you know she treasures. It is also a good idea to take some breaks by taking a stroll, and if possible, going outside to work off some energy.

Implications for Extension Programming

Whether an Extension professional is designing parent education programs or writing newsletters on age-appropriate expectations for children, these findings can assist in providing their audiences with research-based information about child development. The more knowledge parents can acquire about their child's development, the more sensitive they will be in meeting their child's needs during these important years of development.

Reference: DYG, Inc. 2000. What grown-up's understand about child development: A National benchmark study. On-line: http://www.zerotothree.org

Written by: Dr. Millie Ferrer (), Associate Professor, Human Development

Components of Effective Youth Development Programs

In 1999 the Department of Health and Human Services provided funds to five prominent researchers (Catalano, Berglund, Ryan, Lonczak, and Hawkins) to conduct a comprehensive review of youth development programs that had conducted extensive evaluations. Over 77 youth program evaluations were examined, of which 25 were chosen based on their strong evaluation design.

Catalano et al.(the researchers) conducted a comparative analysis of the programs to assess the documented effectiveness of the programs at reducing youth problem behaviors and increasing positive youth outcomes. Then, the researchers searched for commonalities in the programs that were shown to be most effective. Primarily, the researchers looked for common program characteristics and strategies.

Catalano et al. concluded that positive youth development approaches could, when implemented well, increase positive youth behavior outcomes and decrease youth problem behaviors. In 19 of the 25 (76%) programs reviewed, positive changes in youth behavior included:

• significant improvements in interpersonal skills,
• increased quality of peer and adult relationships,
• better self-control,
• increased problem solving skills,
• enhanced self-efficacy, and
• more commitment to schooling and increased academic achievement.

Of the 25 programs reviewed, 96% (24) showed significant reduction in the following problem behaviors:

• drug and alcohol use,
• school misbehavior,
• aggressive behavior,
• violence,
• truancy,
• high-risk sexual behavior, and
• smoking.

Also, the researchers concluded that there are some program characteristics and strategies that youth development programs can employ in order to promote positive youth development. Three general program strategies were evident in the most effective programs:

1. supportive relationships,
2. opportunities for skill building, and
3. support for efficacy.

The researchers pointed out several limitations to the 25 program evaluations. Namely, assessment measures were rarely adequate to track positive youth development over time, and problem behaviors were measured much more frequently than positive behaviors. A third weakness is the failure to gather follow-up data. Consequently, much more research is needed before one can be confident about which programs and which aspects of these programs actually impact youth development. Nonetheless, the findings are promising enough that they can be used to inform future youth development program design.

Implications for Extension Youth Development Programming

Catalano et al. found that supportive relationships were a major component of most of the effective programs they reviewed. Explicit mentoring activities are the most obvious examples of nurturing supportive relationships, but most of the programs provided youth with some form of regular supportive contact with non-familial adults. The importance of this element (relationship with caring adult) has been shown in other studies to promote positive youth development as well. The support must be regular (consistent), sustained over a period of time and meaningful in order to be most effective. In most cases, the aforementioned types of support just do not occur. Instead, program planners must create those opportunities for adults and the young people to bond, share experiences together, and become a part of one another’s lives. The volunteer involvement in 4-H clubs provides an unparalleled vehicle for implementing a strong supportive relationship component.

Another finding of the Catalano et al. study was that youth development programs should provide opportunities for skill building. An emphasis on social skills was a frequent program goal for the 25 program evaluations studied. Building skills in resisting peer pressure to engage in a wide range of problem behaviors (such as unprotected sex, drinking and drug use, and illegal behaviors) was common in programs primarily focused on preventing such problems. Also, many of the programs focusing specifically on the parent-youth relationship included activities to teach youth and parents better communication skills (Design Team FL 515 has wonderful resources for parents). Other programs focused on individual social and emotional skill development. Some programs provided employment or economic management skills through part-time employment with community programs (Design Team 715 has resources for workforce prep and youth entrepreneurship education). The common theme was that skill development was intentional, purposeful and focused. Key education, activities and experiences were designed to target specific skills or skill sets that were to be developed. It was not assumed that those target skills would be developed by youth just from participating in any type of program activity..

According to Catalano et al., support for self-efficacy was another important program strategy found in effective programs. Self-efficacy was enhanced when the young people had an opportunity for autonomy, were able to take responsibility, and were challenged. It is clear that youth should be actively involved in making decisions and implementing solutions to problems/issues with which they are faced.

Finally, the effective programs targeted a combination of social settings (family, school, church, community, and work). Of the social settings mentioned, 88 percent had a school component, 60 percent had a family component, and 48 percent had a community component. This finding shows that we, as Extension educators, should work closely with schools and community groups/organizations in collaborative programming that promotes the positive development of youth.

In short, the findings of this study show that we are on the right track in Extension as we already have some of the positive youth development characteristics integrated into our programs. Also, the findings suggest other program characteristics and strategies that we can implement to strengthen our youth development programs.

Source: Catalano, R.F., M.I. Berglund, J.A. Ryan, H.S. Lonczak, and J.D. Hawkins, (1999). Positive Youth Development in the United States: Research Findings on Evaluations of Positive Youth Development Programs. Seattle, Washington: University of Washington School of Social Work.

Written by: Dr. Lisa A. Guion Assistant Professor, Program Planning and Evaluation

Credit Card Trends

To determine the changes and trends in the use of credit cards, Consumer Action sponsors the National Credit Card Survey each year. This non-profit education and advocacy group has conducted studies each year since the mid-1980s. The study just completed, took a close look at 126 credit cards issued by 42 different companies. Some of the significant findings are listed below.

• Due to lower federal interest rate indexes, the average variable annual percentage rate dropped almost 3½%. However, 29% of the variable rate cards have policies that keep consumers from reaping the full benefit of the drop. The policies have "floors," a level below which the rate cannot drop. Without the "floor" the rate drop would have been 5%. (The Prime rate, December 2001 was 9% - 9.5% and in April 2002 it was 4.75%.)
• The average minimum payment due has dropped from 4% to between 2% and 3%.
• More cardholders are being charged late fees. Card issuers are sticking tightly to the stated due date, allowing no leeway.
• More banks are using risk-based pricing. Up from 14% two years ago, now 37% of the card issuers require the consumer to apply for a credit card before telling him/her the APR he/she must pay. Although enticing APRs are advertised, the consumer must apply for the card before being told the rates he/she will actually be charged. (He/she may not "qualify" for the lower APR.)
• Late fees have increased 7% in the past year.

Surveyors also found a disturbing trend that will trouble consumers, poor customer service! When conducting the survey interviewers found an increasing number of the people that a consumer would first contact regarding a credit card inquiry to be rude and poorly informed. This was not true of administrators, but they are not people consumers first contact.

Lower prime rates have decreased both fixed and flexible rates but drops have not been comparable to the decreases in the Prime. About 67% of credit cards carry adjustable rates, which can be less expensive than fixed rates for those who do not pay their total bill each month. However, rates can change rapidly as the Prime fluctuates. Most (78%) of the adjustable (flexible) rate cards adjust their rates monthly and 15% quarterly. One card company adjusts immediately and a very few every six months.

The cost of fees continues to climb. Fifty-seven percent (57%) of the cards charge $29 for a late fee. Other cards charge $34-$35 and a few charge as little as $15. The average charge is now $27.82 up 7% over last year's $26. (The fee increase for 2000 was 2%).

If you do not pay your bill on time a late fee is not the only penalty. About 75% or more of the cards surveyed also have a default or delinquency fee. Last year 69% of those surveyed had such a fee. This fee ranges from 12% to 29.49%. These fees have not been prominently identified but recent legislation is changing that.

Cash advances are a costly way to get money, but many people use it. Interest charges begin to accrue as soon as the money is withdrawn and are higher than for credit cards. During the past year 61.9% of the cards issuers increased their fees for cash advances. Cash advance fees range from 2% to 4% of the withdrawal plus higher APR, (12.95% to 26.49%).

Seventy-seven percent (77%) of the credit cards surveyed offered introductory "teaser" APRs to new cardholders. Most offers stay in effect for six months. A few are in effect for two months. Most require the transfer of a balance.

Thirty-seven percent (37%) of the surveyed institutions will not quote a firm APR until they have screened the applicant's credit history. The industry is moving in a direction where only direct-mailed, pre-approved applicants will get a firm APR quote before applying. The failure to provide potential customers with a firm APR violates the spirit of the Federal Credit Disclosure Act according to some regulatory agencies.

This study was conducted by Consumer Action, San Francisco, CA and reported in the publication, Consumer Action News, March 2002, pages 1-4. The information contained in the report has implications for Extension programs. The use of credit is continuing to expand. Credit card debt has become a major problem with excessive debt creating financial risks for many Florida families.

Programs that teach consumers of all ages to read and understand the terms of credit card offers will teach Floridians responsible use of credit and help them to avoid financial problems.

Written by:  Mary N. Harrison (); Professor, Consumer Education

Retirement Savings Update

The government is making it more enticing for individuals to save for retirement and at the same time sending a clear message that individuals and families have the responsibility of planning and saving for their own retirement.

Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs) were created to encourage savings.  An IRA is a savings account that gives you tax advantages for setting aside money for retirement. That is:

Contributions you make to an IRA may be fully or partially deductible, depending on which type of IRA you have, your financial circumstances and generally the amounts you have in your IRA (both earnings and gains) are not taxed until distributed and in some cases are not taxed at all if distributed according to the rules.

In 2002, the rules change for IRAs.  The amount workers can contribute changes and a catch-up provision is provided for workers over age 50. Highlights of these changes are listed below.

Traditional Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs)

In 2002 you can set up a traditional IRA of $3,000 for your self and for your spouse, if you and/or your spouse (filing a joint return) have earned income during the year of at least that amount and you were under age 70½ at the end of the year. You may contribute $3,000 to your IRA and your spouse may contribute $3,000 to his or her IRA in 2002. If you are over 50 years of age, you may contribute $3,500 in 2002. This is up from $2,000 in 2001.  

If you are single and your modified adjusted gross income is under $34,000 your contributions to a traditional IRA in 2002 will be tax deductible.  Your deduction will be phased out at $44,000 if you are covered by another pension plan.

If you are married and filing a joint return in 2002 with modified adjusted gross income under $54,000, you may deduct your IRA contribution.  A partial deduction is phased out when modified adjusted gross income reaches $64,000.  The amount that you can contribute to an IRA is scheduled to increase until it reaches $5,000 in 2008 and will be adjusted for inflation thereafter.

Your contribution to the traditional IRA will grow tax deferred until funds are withdrawn. Penalties may be applied to early withdrawals (before 59½).  Be sure to review the withdrawal provisions of your IRA or any IRA that you might inherit. Failure to follow the guidelines for withdrawing funds can evoke substantial penalties.

ROTH IRAs

The ROTH IRA created by tax law in 1997 allows non tax deductible contributions of up to $3,000 in 2002; $4,000 in 2005 and $5,000 after 2007 for individuals with earned income under $110,000 and joint filers with earned income under $160,000. The beauty of the ROTH IRA is that earnings accumulate tax free if the ROTH IRA is held five (5) or more years and withdrawn after the owner is age 59½.  Penalties may be assessed for early withdrawal from the investment.

Unlike the traditional IRA, there is no age limit for contributions to the ROTH IRA. If you are 75 years of age and still have earned income you may contribute to a ROTH IRA.  There is no mandatory withdrawal rule for the ROTH IRA as with the traditional IRA. The catch-up provision also applies to the ROTH IRA.

In 2002 tax deferred contributions are increased to $11,000 for 401(k), 403(b), and Section 457 employer sponsored retirement plans.   Contribution limits increase to $12,000 in 2003, $13,000 in 2004, $14,000 in 2005 and $14,000 in 2006. A catch-up provision for persons over age 50 provides an additional $1,000 in 2002, an additional $2,000 in 2003, an additional $3,000 in 2004, an additional $4,000 in 2005, an additional $5,000 in 2006 and adjusted for inflation after that. Check with your investment counselors for more information on tax shelters.

Written by: Dr. Jo Turner (), CFP, Professor, Family and Consumer Economics